The pioneering stage of development in the 1960s #

In the early 1960s, computer technology began to be applied to map measurement, analysis, and production. Computer-assisted cartography developed rapidly due to its advantages of speed, cost-effectiveness, versatility, ease of updating, user-friendly operation, reliable quality, and capabilities for storage, measurement, classification, merging, and overlay analysis. By the mid-1960s, the growing need for planning and managing natural resources and the environment, coupled with demands for improved methods to store, analyze, and display large volumes of spatial environmental data, along with rapid advancements in computer technology and its applications in processing natural resource and environmental data, led to a significant increase in systems designed for comprehensive map analysis and output.

During the mid-to-late 1960s, numerous organizations and institutions related to GIS were established and began their work. For instance, the Urban and Regional Information Systems Association (URISA) was founded in 1966, the National Association of State Information Systems (NASIS) in 1969, the Interagency Committee on Urban Information Systems (UAAC) in 1968, and the Subcommittee on Remote Sensing and Data Processing for Geographic Data of the International Geographical Union (IGU) in 1968, among others. These organizations successively organized a series of international symposia on Geographic Information Systems.

The initial systems primarily focused on urban and land use applications. For example, the Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS) was developed to handle the vast amounts of data acquired from the Canada Land Survey. This system was initiated and implemented by the Canadian government in 1963 and became fully operational by 1971. It is recognized as one of the earliest and most comprehensively developed large-scale operational geographic information systems in the world.

Owing to the limited capabilities of computer hardware systems, the advancement of software technology was constrained. During this period, the development of geographic information system software was primarily focused on specific GIS applications. By the late 1960s, significant progress had been made in software techniques pertaining to certain specific functions of GIS.

Firstly, the development of raster-vector conversion technology, automated topological encoding, and methods for detecting topological errors in polygons has opened up approaches for separately processing graphic and attribute data.

Secondly, individual or partial map sheets containing attribute data can be automatically merged with other map sheets or sections along their edges, forming a larger integrated map. This enables small computers to process data files of larger spatial areas (or map sheets) in manageable segments.

Thirdly, a command language was adopted to establish a spatial data management system, enabling operations such as reclassifying attributes, splitting line segments, merging polygons, changing scales, measuring areas, generating maps and new polygons, searching by attributes, outputting tables and reports, and performing polygon overlay processing.

During this period, the software was mainly developed for the host and peripherals at that time, the algorithm was rough and the graphics function was limited.

Consolidation phase in the 1970s #

After the 1970s, rapid advancements in computer hardware and software technologies, particularly the use of high-capacity storage devices, hard drives—provided powerful means for the input, storage, retrieval, and output of spatial data. The development of user screens, graphics, and image cards enhanced human-computer interaction and high-quality graphical display capabilities, driving GIS toward rapid development in practical applications. Many developed countries successively established various thematic, scalable, and diverse geographic information systems, each with distinct characteristics. For instance, the U.S. Forest Service developed a nationwide Resource Information Display System for unified use in forestry. The U.S. Geological Survey created multiple geographic information systems to acquire and process geological, geographical, topographic, and water resource information, with GIRAS being a typical example. Japan’s Geospatial Information Authority began building a Digital National Land Information System in 1974, storing, processing, and retrieving survey data, aerial photograph information, administrative divisions, land use, topography, and geology to serve national and regional land planning. Sweden established numerous information systems at the central, regional, and municipal levels, including notable examples such as the Regional Statistical Database, Road Database, Land Survey Information System, Stockholm Geographic Information System, and Urban Planning Information System. France developed the GITAN geographic database system and the Deep Geophysics Information System, among others.

Furthermore, increasing attention has been paid to the development of Geographic Information Systems based on remote sensing data. This includes exploring the feasibility of integrating remote sensing into GIS, addressing interface challenges, and examining the structure and composition of remote sensing-supported information systems. For instance, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in the United States successfully developed the Image-Based Information System (IBIS) in 1976, which combined image data processing capabilities with GIS functionalities, enabling the handling of Landsat multispectral data. Between 1979 and 1980, NASA’s Earth Resources Laboratory developed a GIS named ELAS, capable of processing Landsat MSS image data, digitized map data, airborne thermal infrared multispectral scanner data, and Seasat synthetic aperture radar data to generate thematic maps of land cover.

During this period, the growing demand for GIS led many organizations, institutions, and companies to engage in GIS development, significantly advancing GIS software. According to a 1976 survey by the IGU Subcommittee on Remote Sensing and Data Processing, there were over 600 software systems capable of processing spatial data, with more than 80 fully functional GIS. Significant progress was made in map digitization input technology during this phase. The adoption of interactive editing methods improved efficiency and facilitated easier modifications. Additionally, scanning input technology systems emerged. While graphical capabilities saw limited expansion and data management capacity remained relatively constrained, the most critical software advancement of this era was the development of interactive computer graphics technology.

Breakthrough in the 1980s #

Driven by advancements in computer technology, a new generation of computers with significantly improved performance-to-cost ratios, such as graphics workstations and personal computers emerged, leading to the widespread adoption of computers and spatial information systems across numerous sectors. With the development and popularization of computer hardware and software technologies, geographic information systems gradually matured, marking a critical phase in their evolution. The substantial decrease in computer costs, the proliferation of powerful microcomputer systems, and rapid advancements in graphics input, output, and storage devices greatly accelerated the development of GIS software. This period saw the creation of a vast number of microcomputer-based GIS software systems. Due to the stringent software environment constraints of microcomputer systems, many algorithms and software techniques developed for microcomputer GIS achieved remarkable efficiency. GIS software technology witnessed significant breakthroughs in the following aspects: In raster scan data processing, although processing scanned data required considerably more machine time than scanning itself (at a ratio of 10:1), it substantially enhanced data input efficiency. In data storage and computation, advancements in hardware technology enabled GIS software to handle significantly larger datasets and greater complexity, with many software techniques being embedded into specialized processors. Additionally, there was a notable increase in software for automated correction of remote sensing images, entity recognition, image enhancement, and expert system analysis. In data output, GIS software, in coordination with hardware advancements, supported various forms of cartographic output. In geographic information management, besides the progress in DBMS technology to support large-scale spatial databases, specially developed spatial database management systems tailored for expressing and analyzing spatial relationships in GIS also saw substantial development.

In a word, the development of GIS in this period has the following characteristics:

Firstly, on the basis of technology development in the 1970s, the technology of Geographic Information System (GIS) has been applied in an all-round way.

Secondly, with more countries and regions working and increasing international cooperation, we have begun to explore the establishment of an international geographic information system, which will be promoted from developed countries to developing countries, such as China;

Thirdly, GIS technology has penetrated multiple disciplines, evolving from relatively simple, single-function, and decentralized systems to multifunctional, shared, and integrated information systems, advancing toward intelligent systems. The next generation of GIS will leverage expert system knowledge to perform analysis, forecasting, and decision-making.

Fourthly, microcomputer-based Geographic Information Systems have flourished and gained widespread application. Developed under the theoretical guidance of GIS, GIS tools now exhibit higher efficiency, greater independence, and enhanced versatility. They are less dependent on specific application domains and computer hardware environments, thereby opening new pathways for the establishment and application of Geographic Information Systems.

Work on Geographic Information Systems in China began in the early 1980s. Marked by the establishment of the first GIS research laboratory in China at the Institute of Remote Sensing Applications of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1980, the initial phase of development saw progress in theoretical exploration, hardware configuration, software development, standard formulation, establishment of local systems, preliminary application experiments, and technical team training. These efforts accumulated valuable experience and laid the foundation for the nationwide development and application of GIS.

The Socialization Phase in the 1990s #

In the 1990s, with the establishment of the geographic information industry and the global proliferation of digital information products, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) began to permeate various sectors and even households, becoming indispensable tools and assistants in production, daily life, education, and work. GIS has evolved into an essential operational system for many organizations, particularly in government decision-making departments, where it has influenced existing operational methods, organizational structures, and work plans to some extent. Moreover, public awareness of GIS has significantly increased, leading to a substantial rise in demand, which in turn has driven the expansion and deepening of GIS applications. National-level and even global GIS initiatives have become subjects of widespread public concern.

Since the 1990s, China’s Geographic Information System has entered a phase of rapid development. Efforts have been made to transition GIS from experimental and localized applications during its initial development stage to practical and productive use, providing analysis and decision-making support for major national economic issues. Concurrently, the research and application of GIS are gradually evolving into an industry, establishing the conditions for its commercialization.

Important Historical Events in the Development of Geographic Information Systems Since the 1960s:

• 1960: The U.S. Air Force and CIA successfully launch CORONA for the first time.

• 1963: Roger Tomlinson initiated the development of the Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS).

• 1963: Dr. Edgar Horwood founded the Urban and Regional Information Systems Association (URISA).

• 1964: Howard Fisher established the Harvard Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis.

• 1966: The SYMAP system was developed at the Northwest Institute of Technology and completed at Harvard Labs.

• 1967: DIME (Dual Independent Cartographic Code) was developed by the United States Census Bureau.

• 1969: Jack and Laura Dangermond established the Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI).

• 1969: Jim Meadlock founded Integraph.

• 1969: Laser scanner was born in England.

• 1969: Ian McHarg’s influential book “Design With Nature” published.

• 1971: Establishment of Canadian Geographic Information System (CGIS).

• 1972: IBM’s GFIS Publication.

• 1972: Development of GIS (General Information System for Planning).

• 1972: Landsat satellite successfully launched for the first time.

• 1973: USGS developed a geographic information extraction and analysis system.

• 1973: Development of Maryland Automatic Geographic Information (MAGI).

• 1974: Established the Experimental Cartography Unit (ECU) at the Royal College of Art in London.

• 1974: The first automatic mapping conference was held in Reston, Virginia.

• 1976: Minnesota developed the Minnesota Land Management Information System.

• 1977: USGS has developed a digital line graph (DLG) spatial data model.

• 1978: ERDAS establishment.

• 1978: Map overlay compounding and statistical system development.

• 1979: Harvard Graphics Lab developed ODYSSEY GIS.

• 1981: ESRI ARC/ INFO GIS release.

• 1982: NASA launched Landsat TM4.

• 1983: Establishment of ETAK Digital Cartography Company.

• 1984: Marble, Calkins & Peuquet published Basic Readings in Geographic Information Systems.

• 1984: First International Conference on Spatial Data Processing.

• 1984: Landsat commercialization.

• 1984: NASA launches Landsat TM5.

• 1985: GPS becomes an operational system.

• 1985: The US Army Construction Engineering Laboratory began to develop GRASS (Geographic Resources Analysis Support Systems).

• 1986: Establishment of MapInfo.

• 1986: Peter Burrough publishes “Principles of Geographic Information Systems for Land Resources Assessment”.

• 1986: First launch of SPOT satellite.

• 1987: Publication of the International Journal of Geographic Information Systems.

• 1987: Tydac SPANS GIS Publication.

• 1987: Idrisi project started at Corakot University.

• 1988: The United States Census Bureau released TIGER for the first time.

• 1988: New York State University began to develop GIS-L Internet list-server.

• 1988: First release of GIS World.

• 1988: First GIS/LIS Conference Held.

• 1988: Establishment of Regional Research Laboratories in the United Kingdom.

• 1988: Small World was founded.

• 1989: The Geographic Information Systems Consortium (AGI) was established in the United Kingdom.

• 1989: Stan Arnoff published Geographic Information Systems: a Management Perspective.

• 1989: Intergraph releases MGE.

• 1991: Maguire, Goodchild and Rhind published “Geographic Information Systems: Principles and Applications”.

• 1992: MAPS ALIVE release.

• 1993: Digital Matrix Systems released the first version of InFoCAD for Windows NT, the first Win NT-based GIS software.

• 1994: OGC formation (David Schell, Ken Gardells, Kurt Buehler, et al).

• 1995: MapInfo Professional Edition released.

• 1999: NASA launched Landsat TM7.